Other common CHDs include malformations of the cardiac outflow tract (OFT), which normally gives rise to the proper vessel development and septation of the semilunar valves (leading to the aorta and pulmonary valves). ![]() The most common defects, seen in approximately 30% of human cases, are atrial and ventricular septal defects (ASD/VSD), caused by a hole along the interatrial septum or interventricular septum, respectively. CHDs are the most common birth defect and the leading cause of birth defect-related deaths, with a variety of phenotypes ranging from mild forms, accompanied by minimal cardiac complications, to severe and life-threatening forms, resulting in extreme cardiac impediments and death. Deficiencies in these cells result in a variety of cardiac malformations during embryonic development categorized as congenital heart defects (CHDs). NC ablation studies have demonstrated the importance of NCCs for proper heart formation. ![]() However, studies on these subpopulations have indicated that the vagal NC consists of a smaller specified group of cells deemed the cardiac NC, known to significantly contribute to cardiovascular development, along with aiding in the development of the thymus, thyroid glands, and cardiac ganglia. Although NCCs arise sequentially during embryo development, they are specified into four main subpopulations based on their anteroposterior axis position, differential abilities, and corresponding terminal locations : cranial neural crest (NC), contributing to the majority of bone and cartilage formation of the head vagal NC, aiding in the formation of the thymus, lung, enteric nervous system and cardiovascular system trunk NC, contributing to the peripheral nervous and endocrine systems sacral NC, aiding in the development of neurons and glia of the enteric nervous system. During and after the neural plate closes, NCCs undergo epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in which they obtain their migratory potential and disperse from the neural tube, relocating to specific locations throughout the embryo, to differentiate into a wide variety of cell types, such as osteoblasts and smooth muscle cells. During embryogenesis, NCCs, upon neural plate folding, arise from either side of the neural plate at a region called the neural plate border, situated between the neuroectoderm and non-neuroectoderm. ![]() Neural crest cells (NCCs) are a multipotent, and highly migratory, transient vertebrate cell population originating in the dorsal region of the neural tube.
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